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Презентация на тему Semantic structure of the word and its changes. (Lecture 3)

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Plan:Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning.Types of word-meaning. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results.
Lecture 3   Semantic Structure of the Word and Its Changes Plan:Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning.Types of word-meaning. Polysemy. Semantic structure List of Terms:semanticsreferentreferential meaninggrammatical meaninglexical meaningdenotational meaningconnotational meaningpolysemantic wordpolysemylexical-semantic variantsbasic meaningperipheral meaningprimary It is meaning that makes language useful. George A. Miller, The science of word, 1991 1. Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning The function of the word as a unit of communication Meaning of a linguistic unit, or linguistic meaning, is studied by semantics This linguistic study was pointed out in 1897 by M. Breal Semasiology is a synonym for 'semantics'  (from Gk. semasia 'meaning' + logos 'learning') Different Approaches to Word Meaning: ideational (or conceptual)referentialfunctional The ideational theory can be considered the earliest theory of A difficulty: not clear why communication and understanding are possible if linguistic Meaning: a concept with specific structure. Do people speaking different languages have different conceptual systems? If people speaking finger 'one of 10 movable parts of joints at the end of Referential theory is based on interdependence of things, their concepts and names. The complex relationships between referent (object denoted by the word), an animal, with 4  legs Meaning    conceptdifferent words having different meanings may be used Concept of dying diepass away kick the bucket join the majority, etc Meaning    symbolIn different languages:a word with the same meaning Meaning    referentto denote one and the same object we A horsein various contexts:horse, animal, creature, it, etc. Word meaning:  the interrelation of all three components of the semantic Functionalists study word meaning by analysis of the way the The meaning of a word is its use in language. cloud and cloudy have different meanings because in speech they function differently Meaning:  a component of the word through which a concept is communicated 2. Types of word-meaning According to the conception of word meaning as a specific structure: functional Lexical Meaning:denotational connotational Denotational lexical meaning provides correct reference of a word to an individual to glare – to look Connotational lexical meaning is an emotional colouring of the word. Connotations:Emotive charge may be inherent in word meaning (like in attractive, repulsive) 2. Stylistic reference refers the word to a certain style:neutral wordscolloquialbookish, or 3. Evaluative connotations express approval or disapproval (charming, disgusting).4. Intensifying connotations are Denotative componentLonely = alone, without companyTo glare = to lookConnotative component + 3. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning.Polysemy is Most English words are polysemantic.   A Monosemantic Words:terms (synonym, bronchitis, molecule), pronouns (this, my, both), numerals, etc. The main causes of polysemy:a large number of: 1) monosyllabic words; 2) The sources of polysemy: 1) the process of meaning change (meaning specialization: blanketa woolen covering used on beds,a covering for keeping a house warm, Meanings of a polysemantic word are organized in a semantic structure Lexical-semantic variant one of the meanings of a polysemantic word used in speech A Word's Semantic Structure Is Studied:Diachronically (in the process of its historical The meaning first registered in the language is called primary. Other meanings table a piece of furniture    (primary meaning)the persons seated The meaning that first occurs to our mind, or is understood without Fire Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word:radiation (the primary meaning stands crust hard outer part of bread hard part of anything (a pie, Polysemy exists not in speech but in the language. It’s easy Context:linguistic   1. lexical – a number of lexical units around 4. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results The meaning of a word can change in a course of time. Causes of Change of  Word-meaning: 1. Extralinguistic (various changes in the Linguistic Causes:1. ellipsis – in a phrase made up of two words Linguistic Causes: 2. differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms – when a new word Linguistic Causes:3. linguistic analogy – if one of the members of the The nature of semantic changes is based on the secondary Association between Old Meaning and New:similarity of meanings or metaphor – a Types of Metaphor: a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), Types of Metonymy:'material — object of it' (She is wearing a fox);'container Results of Semantic Change:changes in the denotational componentchanges in the connotational meaning Changes in the Denotational Component: restriction – a word denotes a restricted generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized Changes in the Connotational Meaning:pejorative development (degradation) – the acquisition by the List of Literature:Антрушина, Г. Б. Лексикология английского языка: учебник для студ. пед.
Слайды презентации

Слайд 2 Plan:
Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning.
Types of

Plan:Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning.Types of word-meaning. Polysemy. Semantic

word-meaning.
Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context.


Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results.


Слайд 3 List of Terms:
semantics
referent
referential meaning
grammatical meaning
lexical meaning
denotational meaning
connotational meaning
polysemantic

List of Terms:semanticsreferentreferential meaninggrammatical meaninglexical meaningdenotational meaningconnotational meaningpolysemantic wordpolysemylexical-semantic variantsbasic meaningperipheral

word
polysemy
lexical-semantic variants
basic meaning
peripheral meaning
primary meaning
secondary meaning

radiation
concatenation
lexical context
grammatical context
thematic context
ellipsis
differentiation

of synonyms
linguistic analogy
metaphor
metonymy
restriction of meaning
extension of meaning
ameliorative development of meaning
pejorative development of meaning

Слайд 4
It is meaning that makes language useful.

It is meaning that makes language useful. George A. Miller, The science of word, 1991


George A. Miller,
The science of word, 1991


Слайд 5
1. Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning

1. Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning

Слайд 6
The function of the word as

The function of the word as a unit of communication

a unit of communication is possible by its possessing

a meaning.

Among the word’s various characteristics meaning is the most important.



Слайд 7
"The Meaning of Meaning" (1923) by C.K. Ogden

and I.A. Richards – about 20 definitions of meaning


Слайд 8 Meaning of a linguistic unit, or linguistic meaning,

Meaning of a linguistic unit, or linguistic meaning, is studied by

is studied by semantics

(from Greek – semanticos 'significant')


Слайд 9
This linguistic study was pointed out

This linguistic study was pointed out in 1897 by M. Breal

in 1897 by M. Breal


Слайд 10
Semasiology is a synonym for 'semantics'

Semasiology is a synonym for 'semantics'  (from Gk. semasia 'meaning' + logos 'learning')



(from Gk. semasia 'meaning' + logos 'learning')


Слайд 11 Different Approaches to Word Meaning:
ideational (or conceptual)
referential
functional

Different Approaches to Word Meaning: ideational (or conceptual)referentialfunctional

Слайд 12
The ideational theory can be considered

The ideational theory can be considered the earliest theory of

the earliest theory of meaning.
It

states that meaning originates in the mind in the form of ideas, and words are just symbols of them.


Слайд 13 A difficulty:
not clear why communication and understanding

A difficulty: not clear why communication and understanding are possible if

are possible if linguistic expressions stand for individual personal

ideas.

Слайд 14 Meaning:
a concept with specific structure.

Meaning: a concept with specific structure.

Слайд 15
Do people speaking different languages have different conceptual

Do people speaking different languages have different conceptual systems? If people

systems?
If people speaking different languages have the same

conceptual systems why are identical concepts expressed by correlative words having different lexical meanings?

Слайд 16
finger 'one of 10 movable parts of joints

finger 'one of 10 movable parts of joints at the end

at the end of each human hand, or one

of 8 such parts as opposed to the thumbs‘
and

палец 'подвижная конечная часть кисти руки, стопы ноги или лапы животного'


Слайд 17
Referential theory is based on

Referential theory is based on interdependence of things, their concepts and names.

interdependence of things, their concepts and names.


Слайд 18

The complex relationships between referent (object

The complex relationships between referent (object denoted by the word),

denoted by the word), concept and word are traditionally

represented by the following triangle:
Thought = concept





Symbol = word Referent = object

Слайд 19 an animal, with 4 legs and a tail,

an animal, with 4 legs and a tail,

can bark and bite dog



Слайд 20 Meaning concept
different words having different

Meaning  conceptdifferent words having different meanings may be used to express the same concept

meanings may be used to express the same concept


Слайд 21 Concept of dying
die
pass away
kick the bucket

Concept of dying diepass away kick the bucket join the majority, etc


join the majority, etc


Слайд 22 Meaning symbol
In different languages:

a word

Meaning  symbolIn different languages:a word with the same meaning have

with the same meaning have different sound forms (dog,

собака)
words with the same sound forms have different meaning (лук, look)



Слайд 23 Meaning referent
to denote one and

Meaning  referentto denote one and the same object we can give it different names

the same object we can give it different names


Слайд 24 A horse
in various contexts:
horse,
animal,
creature,
it, etc.

A horsein various contexts:horse, animal, creature, it, etc.

Слайд 25 Word meaning:
the interrelation of all

Word meaning:  the interrelation of all three components of the

three components of the semantic triangle: symbol, concept and

referent, though meaning is not equivalent to any of them.


Слайд 26
Functionalists study word meaning by analysis

Functionalists study word meaning by analysis of the way the

of the way the word is used in certain

contexts.

Слайд 27
The meaning of a word

The meaning of a word is its use in language.

is its use in language.


Слайд 28 cloud and cloudy
have different meanings because in

cloud and cloudy have different meanings because in speech they function

speech they function differently and occupy different positions in

relation to other words.


Слайд 29 Meaning:
a component of the word through

Meaning: a component of the word through which a concept is communicated

which a concept is communicated


Слайд 30
2. Types of word-meaning

2. Types of word-meaning

Слайд 31 According to the conception of word meaning as

According to the conception of word meaning as a specific structure:

a specific structure:
functional meaning: part of speech meaning (nouns

usually denote "thingness", adjectives – qualities and states)
grammatical: found in identical sets of individual forms of different words (she goes/works/reads, etc.)
lexical: the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit highly individual and recurs in all the forms of a word (the meaning of the verb to work 'to engage in physical or mental activity' that is expressed in all its forms: works, work, worked, working, will work)



Слайд 32 Lexical Meaning:
denotational

connotational

Lexical Meaning:denotational connotational

Слайд 33
Denotational lexical meaning provides correct reference of a

Denotational lexical meaning provides correct reference of a word to an

word to an individual object or a concept.
It

makes communication possible and is explicitly revealed in the dictionary definition (chair 'a seat for one person typically having four legs and a back').


Слайд 34
to glare – to look

to glare – to look

Слайд 35
Connotational lexical meaning is an emotional

Connotational lexical meaning is an emotional colouring of the word.

colouring of the word. Unlike denotational meaning, connotations are

optional.


Слайд 36 Connotations:
Emotive charge may be inherent in word meaning

Connotations:Emotive charge may be inherent in word meaning (like in attractive,

(like in attractive, repulsive) or may be created by

prefixes and suffixes (like in piggy, useful, useless).

It’s always objective because it doesn’t depend on a person’s perception.


Слайд 37
2. Stylistic reference refers the word to a

2. Stylistic reference refers the word to a certain style:neutral wordscolloquialbookish,

certain style:
neutral words
colloquial
bookish, or literary words

Eg. father –

dad – parent .


Слайд 38
3. Evaluative connotations express approval or disapproval (charming,

3. Evaluative connotations express approval or disapproval (charming, disgusting).4. Intensifying connotations

disgusting).

4. Intensifying connotations are expressive and emphatic (magnificent, gorgeous)


Слайд 39
Denotative component

Lonely = alone, without company

To glare =

Denotative componentLonely = alone, without companyTo glare = to lookConnotative component

to look

Connotative component

+ melancholy, sad (emotive con.)

+ 1)

steadily, lastingly (con. of duration)
+ 2) in anger, rage (emotive con.)




Слайд 40
3. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and

3. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context

context


Слайд 41
A polysemantic word is a word having more

A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning.Polysemy

than one meaning.

Polysemy is the ability of words to

have more than one meaning.

Слайд 42
Most English words are

Most English words are polysemantic.  A well-developed polysemy

polysemantic.
A well-developed polysemy is a great

advantage in a language.

Слайд 43 Monosemantic Words:
terms (synonym, bronchitis, molecule),
pronouns (this, my,

Monosemantic Words:terms (synonym, bronchitis, molecule), pronouns (this, my, both), numerals, etc.

both),
numerals, etc.


Слайд 44 The main causes of polysemy:
a large number of:

The main causes of polysemy:a large number of: 1) monosyllabic words;

1) monosyllabic words;
2) words of long duration (that

existed for centuries).


Слайд 45 The sources of polysemy:
1) the process of meaning

The sources of polysemy: 1) the process of meaning change (meaning

change (meaning specialization: is used in more concrete spheres);
2)

figurative language (metaphor and metonymy);
3) homonymy;
4) borrowing of meanings from other languages.

Слайд 46 blanket
a woolen covering used on beds,
a covering for

blanketa woolen covering used on beds,a covering for keeping a house

keeping a house warm,
a covering of any kind

(a blanket of snow),
covering in most cases (used attributively), e.g. we can say: a blanket insurance policy.

Слайд 47
Meanings of a polysemantic word are

Meanings of a polysemantic word are organized in a semantic structure

organized in a semantic structure


Слайд 48 Lexical-semantic variant
one of the meanings of a

Lexical-semantic variant one of the meanings of a polysemantic word used in speech

polysemantic word used in speech


Слайд 49 A Word's Semantic Structure Is Studied:
Diachronically (in the

A Word's Semantic Structure Is Studied:Diachronically (in the process of its

process of its historical development): the historical development and

change of meaning becomes central. Focus: the process of acquiring new meanings.

Synchronically (at a certain period of time): a co-existence of different meanings in the semantic structure of the word at a certain period of language development. Focus: value of each individual meaning and frequency of its occurrence.

Слайд 50

The meaning first registered in the language is

The meaning first registered in the language is called primary. Other

called primary.

Other meanings are secondary, or derived, and

are placed after the primary one.


Слайд 51 table
a piece of furniture

table a piece of furniture  (primary meaning)the persons seated at

(primary meaning)
the persons seated at the table
the food put

on the table, meals
a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood
slabs of stone
words cut into them or written on them
an orderly arrangement of facts
part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on
a level area, a plateau


Слайд 52
The meaning that first occurs to our mind,

The meaning that first occurs to our mind, or is understood

or is understood without a special context is called

the basic or main meaning.

Other meanings are called peripheral or minor.

Слайд 53 Fire

Fire

1. flame (main meaning)


2. an instance of destructive burning
e.g. a forest fire


4. the shooting of guns
e.g. to open fire



3. burning material in a stone, fireplace
e.g. a camp fire


5. strong feeling, passion
e.g. speech lacking fire




Слайд 54 Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word:
radiation

Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word:radiation (the primary meaning

(the primary meaning stands in the center and the

secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning)
concatenation (secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. It is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one)


Слайд 55 crust
hard outer part of bread
hard part

crust hard outer part of bread hard part of anything (a

of anything (a pie, a cake)
harder layer over soft

snow
a sullen gloomy person
Impudence






Слайд 56
Polysemy exists not in speech but in

Polysemy exists not in speech but in the language. It’s

the language.


It’s easy to identify the main meaning

of a separate word. Other meanings are revealed in context.



Слайд 57 Context:
linguistic
1. lexical – a number

Context:linguistic  1. lexical – a number of lexical units around

of lexical units around the word which enter into

interaction with it (i.e. words combined with a polysemantic word are important).
2. grammatical – a number of lexical units around the world viewed on the level of parts of speech.
3. thematic – a very broad context, sometimes a text or even a book.

extralinguistic – different cultural, social, historical factors

Слайд 58
4. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and

4. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results

results


Слайд 59
The meaning of a word can change

The meaning of a word can change in a course of time.

in a course of time.


Слайд 60 Causes of Change of Word-meaning:
1. Extralinguistic (various changes

Causes of Change of Word-meaning: 1. Extralinguistic (various changes in the

in the life of a speech community, in economic

and social structure, in ideas, scientific concepts)
e.g. “car” meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’; now – ‘a motor-car’, ‘a railway carriage’ (in the USA)
“paper” is not connected anymore with “papyrus” – the plant from which it formerly was made.
2. Linguistic (factors acting within the language system)


Слайд 61 Linguistic Causes:
1. ellipsis – in a phrase made

Linguistic Causes:1. ellipsis – in a phrase made up of two

up of two words one of these is omitted

and its meaning is transferred to its partner.
e.g. “to starve” in O.E. = ‘to die’ + the word “hunger”. In the 16th c. “to starve” = ‘to die of hunger’.
e.g. daily = daily newspaper

Слайд 62 Linguistic Causes:
2. differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms –

Linguistic Causes: 2. differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms – when a new

when a new word is borrowed it may become

a perfect synonym for the existing one. They have to be differentiated; otherwise one of them will die.
e.g. “land” in O.E. = both ‘solid part of earth’s surface’ and ‘the territory of the nation’. In the middle E. period the word “country” was borrowed as its synonym; ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be denoted mainly by “country”.



Слайд 63 Linguistic Causes:
3. linguistic analogy – if one of

Linguistic Causes:3. linguistic analogy – if one of the members of

the members of the synonymic set acquires a new

meaning, other members of this set change their meaning too.
e.g. “to catch” acquired the meaning ‘to understand’; its synonyms “to grasp” and “to get” acquired this meaning too.


Слайд 64
The nature of semantic changes is

The nature of semantic changes is based on the secondary

based on the secondary application of the word form

to name a different yet related concept.
Conditions to any semantic change: some connection between the old meaning and the new.

Слайд 65 Association between Old Meaning and New:
similarity of meanings

Association between Old Meaning and New:similarity of meanings or metaphor –

or metaphor – a semantic process of associating two

referents one of which in some way resembles the other
contiguity (closeness) of meanings or metonymy – a semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it


Слайд 66 Types of Metaphor:
a) similarity of shape, e.g. head

Types of Metaphor: a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a

(of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a

comb);
b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);
c) similarity of function, behavior, e.g. a bookworm (a person who is fond of books);
d) similarity of color, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut.


Слайд 67 Types of Metonymy:
'material — object of it' (She

Types of Metonymy:'material — object of it' (She is wearing a

is wearing a fox);
'container — containее' (I ate three

plates);
'place — people' (The city is asleep);
'object — a unit of measure' (This horse came one neck ahead);
'producer — product' (We bought a Picasso);
'whole — part' (We have 10 heads here);
'count — mass' (We ate rabbit)


Слайд 68 Results of Semantic Change:
changes in the denotational component

changes

Results of Semantic Change:changes in the denotational componentchanges in the connotational meaning

in the connotational meaning


Слайд 69 Changes in the Denotational Component:
restriction – a word

Changes in the Denotational Component: restriction – a word denotes a

denotes a restricted number of referents.
e.g.

“fowl” in O.E. = ‘any bird’, but now ‘a domestic hen or chicken’

extension – the application of the word to a wider variety of referents
e.g. ‘‘a cook’’ was not applied to women until the 16th century.




Слайд 70
generalization – the word with the extended meaning

generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the

passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use and

the meaning becomes more general.
e.g. “camp” = ‘the place where troops are lodged in tents’; now – ‘temporary quarters’.

specialization – the word with the new meaning comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group.
e.g. “to glide” = ‘to move gently and smoothly’ and now has acquired a special meaning – ‘to fly with no engine’.



Слайд 71 Changes in the Connotational Meaning:
pejorative development (degradation) –

Changes in the Connotational Meaning:pejorative development (degradation) – the acquisition by

the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive

charge.
e.g. “accident” ‘a happening causing loss or injury’ came from more neutral ‘something that happened’;

ameliorative development (elevation) – the improvement of the connotational component of meaning.
e.g. “a minister” denoted a servant, now – ‘a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state’


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